The Predictive Processing Framework

The dominant theory explaining this phenomenon is Predictive Processing (also known as Predictive Coding). This framework suggests that the brain constructs a hierarchical model of the world, using prior experiences, emotional perceptions, and learned patterns to generate predictions about information coming in through our senses.

Here’s a simplified breakdown:

• Top-down predictions: The brain generates hypotheses about what it expects to perceive, based on its internal model (memories and emotional perceptions of past experiences).
• Bottom-up sensory input: Sensory organs send information to the brain, providing updates from the external world.
• Prediction error: The brain compares its predictions with the actual sensory input and emotional experience. Any discrepancy between the two is a “prediction error.”
• Model updating: The brain uses prediction errors to refine its internal model, improving the accuracy of future predictions.

Essentially, your brain is constantly trying to become better at predicting what something is and means to us. This process allows us to anticipate events, respond quickly to changes, and make sense of complex environments and situations.

The Neuroscience Behind Anticipation

Neuroscientific studies have provided evidence for the predictive brain. For example, studies using fMRI and EEG have shown that brain regions involved in perception and action show anticipatory activity before events occur.

• Our brains focus on specific elements of the environment based on the sensory information available and our memories and emotional perceptions of our past experiences with similar sensory information. (https://neurosciencenews.com/familiar-important-background-neuroscience-24832/)
• Communication requires the use of specific neurons in our Prefrontal Cortex to plan/predict and then produce words during speech. (https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06982-w)
• Research has shown that the brain regions involved in motor control are activated before a movement is initiated, indicating that the brain is planning the movement in advance.
• Studies on visual perception have demonstrated that the brain can predict the appearance of objects based on contextual cues.
  • “The free-energy principle: a unified brain theory?” by Karl Friston, published in Nature Reviews Neuroscience, is a corner stone paper related to the predictive brain. (Friston, K. (2010). The free-energy principle: a unified brain theory?. Nature reviews neuroscience, 11(2), 127–138.)
  • “Perception as Bayesian inference” by Daniel Kersten, Pascal Mamassian, and Alan Yuille, published in Annual Review of Psychology, also adds to the understanding of the Bayesian inference that the brain performs. (Kersten, D., Mamassian, P., & Yuille, A. (2004). Perception as Bayesian inference. Annual review of psychology, 55, 271–309.)

Most Learning Environments Shutdown These Processes

Most classrooms and therapy offices provide opportunities to learn through passive recording of what’s going on around us negating the use and stimulation of other important functions and regions of our brains.  Adult-led, structured teaching methods, particularly those that prioritize memorization, passive learning, and the regurgitation of information or repetition of actions, can inadvertently suppress prefrontal cortex activity, hindering the brain’s predictive capabilities. The prefrontal cortex, crucial for executive functions like planning, decision-making, and working memory, relies on active engagement and exploration to thrive. When learning environments become overly rigid and predictable, with minimal opportunities for independent thought, planning, creativity, or problem-solving, the brain’s natural drive to anticipate and explore is diminished. This is supported by research indicating that stress and a perceived lack of control, often associated with overly directive teaching, can lead to decreased prefrontal cortex function (Arnsten, 2009). Furthermore, studies on cognitive control suggest that excessive external control can reduce intrinsic motivation and the sense of agency, both of which are vital for active learning and predictive processing (Deci & Ryan, 2000). By limiting opportunities for children to generate their own hypotheses and test them through active and social exploration, adult-led methods can effectively shut down the neural mechanisms that drive prediction and anticipation, stifling the development of critical thinking skills while activating more primitive and reactive parts of the brain.  

• Arnsten, A. F. (2009). Stress signaling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function. Nature reviews neuroscience, 10(6), 410–423.  
• Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The” what” and” why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological inquiry, 11(4), 227–268.

Why Should We Nurture a Child’s Brain’s Predictive Ability:

• Motor control: When you reach for a cup of coffee, your brain isn’t just reacting to its position; it’s predicting the trajectory of your arm and the force needed to grasp the cup. This allows for smooth, coordinated movements.
• Language processing (Receptive and Expressive): When you listen to someone speak, your brain anticipates the next word or phrase, allowing you to understand speech even in noisy environments.  Additionally, when you express yourself, your brain predicts what word(s) you are going to say before you express yourself.  This occurs in the prefrontal cortex.
• Perception: Your brain fills in gaps in sensory information, creating a coherent perception of the world. For example, your brain uses prior knowledge to interpret ambiguous visual stimuli.
• Learning: When you perform a new skill, your brain is essentially refining its predictive model, reducing prediction errors and improving performance.
• Social and Emotional responses: Our emotional responses are also influenced by predictions. For example, feeling anxiety can be seen as a prediction that something bad is about to happen where a child might avoid going into a new classroom or connecting with a new person because their last experience was overstimulating and/or didn’t support their needs.

How Do We Nurture These Parts of the Brain?

Greenspan Floortime fosters the brain’s ability to plan and predict by emphasizing dynamic, interactive experiences that build crucial developmental capacities. Rather than focusing on rote learning or isolated skills, Greenspan Floortime® prioritizes engaging the child’s emotions and encouraging them to respond and initiate within social interactions. While other versions of “Floortime” say they work on problem solving, this predictive ability is used in far broader daily applications.  The Greenspan Floortime Approach® is the only version of Floortime focusing on getting the child to do the thinking.  It strengthens the brain’s “thinking” processes, which are essential for anticipation. By consistently engaging in back-and-forth interactions, planning, adapting, problem-solving, and creative play, children develop the ability to:

• Anticipate Social Responses: Through repeated interactions, children learn to predict how others might react to their actions, fostering social understanding and planning.
• Express Themselves: Communication, both gesturally and verbally, requires the ability to predict/anticipate your next movement and/or word prior to expressing it. 
• Develop Symbolic Thinking: Engaging in pretend play helps children create mental models of future scenarios, enhancing their ability to envision and plan ahead.
• Enhance Emotional Regulation: By navigating a range of emotions within safe interactions, children improve their ability to predict and manage their own emotional responses, which is crucial for planning and decision-making.
• Improve Information Processing: The act of integrating multiple streams of sensory information, during Greenspan Floortime, helps to strengthen neural pathways that are used in higher level thinking, and planning.

Essentially, Greenspan Floortime® creates a rich environment where the brain can practice and refine its predictive abilities within the context of meaningful relationships and engaging experiences.

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